How Are Work Hardening And Softening Stages Evaluated In 42Crmo4 Steel? Master Stress-Strain Curve Analysis

Learn how high-precision sensors and true stress-strain curves evaluate work hardening and softening in 42CrMo4 steel research.

Why Are High-Sealing Airtight Containers Required For Curing Expansive Soil? Ensure Chemical And Physical Stability

Learn why airtight sealing is critical for expansive soil stabilization, preventing moisture loss and ensuring proper gypsum and ash reactions.

How Do The Built-In Sample Platform And Petri Dishes Affect Honey Spectral Measurement? Optimize Your Optical Geometry

Learn how fixing optical paths and using standardized petri dishes reduces experimental variance and improves accuracy in honey spectral analysis.

Why Is A Silane-Doped Argon Atmosphere Required For Tial Alloy Powders? Ensure High-Purity Metal Powder Integrity

Learn why TiAl alloy powders need silane-doped argon to scavenge residual oxygen and prevent secondary oxidation in laboratory environments.

How Does An Atmosphere Control Sintering Furnace Contribute To Composite Cathode Performance? Master Po2 Regulation

Learn how oxygen partial pressure (Po2) regulation in sintering furnaces inhibits cobalt diffusion and boosts composite cathode conductivity.

How Does Nb2O5 Simplify Tho2 Sintering? Lower Temperatures To 1150°C And Reduce Hardware Costs

Learn how adding Nb2O5 reduces thorium dioxide sintering temperatures to 1150°C, enabling the use of standard industrial furnaces and air atmospheres.

What Is The Function Of Rubber Sheets In Mlcc Compression? Achieve Uniform Pressure And Realistic Surface Mechanics

Learn how rubber sheets create hyperelastic interfaces in MLCC simulations to ensure uniform pressure and analyze lateral displacement patterns.

Why Are Cold-Seal Pressure Vessels Used For Simulating Diktytaxitic Textures? Mastering Geological Stability

Learn why cold-seal pressure vessels are essential for simulating diktytaxitic textures through precise isothermal and isobaric environmental control.

Why Are Ptfe Beakers Required For Acid-Washed Coal Samples? Ensure Purity With Hf-Resistant Containers

Learn why PTFE beakers are essential for acid-washed coal preparation, preventing contamination and container failure during hydrofluoric acid use.

What Is The Purpose Of Using Heating Equipment During Coffee Husk Composite Curing? Boost Strength & Hardness

Learn how heating equipment like sintering furnaces drives cross-linking and chemical bonding to create high-performance fiber composites.

What Specific Functions Do Servo Valve Components Perform? Master High-Precision Electro-Hydraulic Control

Learn how servo valves bridge electrical signals and hydraulic power to regulate flow, pressure, and actuator speed with precision.

What Are The Characteristics Of The Wet Bag Cold Isostatic Pressing Process? Master Large-Scale Material Density

Learn about wet bag Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP): its 2000mm size capacity, uniform compression mechanics, and batch versatility for large parts.

How Does Pressure Distribute During Isostatic Pressing Of Aluminum? Achieve Uniform Density For Your Lab Materials

Learn how constant shear stress in materials like aluminum ensures uniform pressure distribution and homogeneous density during isostatic pressing.

Why Is Sps Critical For Fine-Grained Tib2 Ceramics? Unlock High Density & Superior Hardness With Spark Plasma Sintering

Learn how Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS) uses pulsed current and internal Joule heating to densify TiB2 while preventing grain growth.

How Does Hot Isostatic Pressing (Hip) Enhance Composite Ceramics? Achieve Near-Theoretical Density And Strength

Learn how HIP outperforms vacuum sintering by eliminating micro-pores with isostatic pressure to boost ceramic density, strength, and clarity.

What Is The Purpose Of Using High-Purity Argon Gas During The Heating Phase? Ensure Sample Integrity And Inert Accuracy

Learn how high-purity Argon creates an inert atmosphere to prevent oxidation and maintain oxygen fugacity in high-pressure equilibrium experiments.

What Are The Advantages Of Applying Cip To Ti(C,N) Cermet Green Bodies? Maximize Density And Structural Integrity

Learn how Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP) eliminates micro-voids and increases green density by 15% in slip-cast Ti(C,N) cermets for better sintering.

How Do Automatic Pressure Sintering Furnaces Function? Master Precision In Heat-Pressed Ceramic Restoration

Discover how automatic pressure sintering furnaces use thermal preparation and mechanical injection to create high-strength ceramic restorations.

Why Is Cold Isostatic Pressing (Cip) Necessary After Uniaxial Pressing? Achieve High-Density Lu3Al5O12:Ce3+ Ceramics

Learn why CIP is essential to eliminate density gradients and prevent deformation in Lu3Al5O12:Ce3+ ceramic green bodies during sintering.

Why Use A High-Precision Furnace For Niti/Ag Composite Annealing? Optimize Multi-Pass Drawing Performance

Learn why high-precision annealing at 750°C is essential for NiTi/Ag composites to restore plasticity while preserving phase transformation properties.

How Do Coaxial Pressing Equipment And Metal Molds Facilitate Bi-2223 Green Body Formation? Unlock Precision Densification

Learn how precision metal molds and coaxial pressing densify Bi-2223 powder into green bodies, enabling successful phase transformation and sintering.

How Does A Sintering Furnace Facilitate Texture Development In Tgg? Master Templated Grain Growth Mechanisms

Learn how high-temperature sintering furnaces drive grain boundary mobility and template expansion to create high-performance textured ceramics.

What Are The Advantages Of Using The Film Stacking Method For Cff-Peek? Solve High Viscosity Challenges Effectively

Discover how the film stacking method overcomes PEEK's high viscosity to ensure superior fiber wetting and fewer defects.

What Role Does A High-Purity Alumina Crucible Play In Nasicon Sintering? Ensure Purity & High Ionic Conductivity

Learn how high-purity alumina crucibles prevent contamination and maintain stoichiometry during the 1200°C sintering of NASICON membranes.

Why Are High-Sealability Aluminum Sample Pans And Lab Presses Necessary For Kelp? Ensure Dsc Accuracy

Learn why hermetic sealing and lab presses are essential for maintaining moisture and composition during the thermal analysis of kelp.

Why Is A Cold Isostatic Press (Cip) Used For Titanium Green Bodies? Ensure Structural Integrity & Strength

Learn why CIP is essential for titanium-camphene green bodies: providing uniform compaction, increasing density, and preventing structural collapse.

What Roles Do High-Purity Graphite Dies Serve Within The Spark Plasma Sintering (Sps) Process? Optimize Your Sintering

Learn how high-purity graphite dies act as heating elements and pressure vessels to enable rapid, uniform densification in the SPS process.

How Does A High-Precision Sealing Machine Affect The Performance Of Li-S Batteries? Precision In Cr2032 Cell Assembly

Learn how high-precision sealing machines optimize interfacial impedance, prevent contamination, and ensure repeatability in Li-S coin cell testing.

What Is The Function Of A High-Temperature Sintering Furnace In Llzo Nanofibers? Achieve Peak Ionic Conductivity

Learn how high-temperature sintering furnaces transform precursor fibers into conductive LLZO ceramic electrolytes through precise thermal control.

Why Are Zirconia Or Graphite Crucibles Selected For Hip Of Ga-Llzo? Ensure Purity & Integrity Under Extreme Conditions

Discover why zirconia or graphite crucibles are essential for HIP of Ga-LLZO electrolytes, providing chemical inertness and strength at 1160°C and 120 MPa.

How Does Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Help Evaluate Cold Isostatic Pressing On Tio2 Thin Films? Improve Efficiency

Learn how EIS quantifies the electrical benefits of Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP) on TiO2 thin films by measuring internal resistance reduction.

What Role Does A Steel Plate Play In Sulfur-Doped Lithium Phosphate Glass Production? Master Rapid Thermal Quenching

Learn how room-temperature steel plates facilitate rapid quenching to create high-quality amorphous sulfur-doped lithium phosphate glass.

What Is The Function Of A Kawai-Type Multi-Anvil Press? Simulate Deep Earth & Lower Mantle Synthesis

Learn how the Kawai-type multi-anvil press uses multi-stage compression to reach 22–28 GPa for synthesizing and studying lower mantle minerals.

Why Does A Cold Isostatic Press (Cip) Offer Better Results Than Dry Pressing For Forming Bsct Ceramic Green Bodies?

Learn why CIP outperforms dry pressing for BSCT ceramics by eliminating density gradients and preventing cracks during 1450°C sintering.

How Are Heating Wire Materials Selected For Hp-Hts Furnaces? Choose The Right Material For 1100°C To 1700°C Excellence

Learn how process temperature dictates the choice between FeCrAl alloys and metallic molybdenum in HP-HTS furnaces for optimal performance.

Why Is A Cold Isostatic Press (Cip) Necessary For La-Gd-Y Ceramics? Ensure Precision And Density In Green Bodies

Learn how Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP) eliminates density gradients and prevents cracking in La-Gd-Y ceramics during high-temperature sintering.

What Advantages Does Isostatic Pressing Equipment Offer Over Uniaxial Pressing For Cma? Achieve Superior Uniformity

Learn how isostatic pressing eliminates density gradients and internal stresses to produce superior Complex Metallic Alloy (CMA) specimens.

What Is The Role Of Cold Isostatic Pressing (Cip) In Mt-Sofc Fabrication? Optimize Anode Support Quality

Learn how Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP) creates high-strength, uniform anode supports for micro-tubular SOFCs by ensuring structural homogeneity.

How Has Automation Improved Cip Systems? Boost Efficiency, Precision, And Safety

Discover how automation enhances Cold Isostatic Pressing with faster cycles, consistent quality, and improved operator safety for better industrial outcomes.

What Is The Purpose Of Using A Ball Mill To Process Calcined Latp Powder Before It Is Pressed Into A Pellet? Unlock High-Performance Electrolytes

Learn how ball milling LATP powder refines particle size and uniformity for dense, crack-free pellets with optimal ionic conductivity.

What Are The Characteristics And Applications Of Dry Bag Isostatic Pressing? Optimize High-Volume Production

Discover dry bag isostatic pressing: a rapid, automated process for mass-producing uniform, high-density components with cycle times under a minute.

What Is The Role Of A Hydraulic Accumulator In A Hydraulic Press? Boost Performance & Efficiency

Learn how a hydraulic accumulator acts as an energy reservoir to enhance press speed, stabilize pressure, reduce wear, and lower energy consumption.

What Are The Different Types Of Isostatic Presses Based On Their Operating Temperature? Select The Right Press For Your Material

Discover the 3 main types of isostatic presses: Cold (CIP), Warm (WIP), and Hot (HIP). Learn how temperature dictates material compatibility for ceramics, polymers, and metals.

Besides Aerospace, Medical, And Automotive, What Are Some Other Industrial Applications Of Isostatic Pressing?

Discover how isostatic pressing is used in energy, electronics, ceramics, and consumer goods for uniform density and reliable performance.

What Are The Distinct Advantages Of Using A Hot Isostatic Press (Hip) For Processing Garnet Electrolyte Pellets? Achieve Near-Theoretical Density

Discover how HIP processing eliminates porosity in garnet electrolytes, doubling ionic conductivity and suppressing lithium dendrites for superior solid-state batteries.

How Do Control Valves Contribute To The Functionality Of A Hydraulic Press? Master Precision And Safety In Your Operations

Learn how control valves regulate flow, pressure, and direction in hydraulic presses for precise, safe, and efficient industrial applications.

What Equipment Is Required For Cold Isostatic Pressing? Essential Components For Uniform Density

Learn about Cold Isostatic Pressing equipment: pressure vessel, hydraulic system, elastomeric mold, and control systems for uniform material consolidation.

What Are The Characteristics Of Wet Bag Technology In Cip? Unlock Versatility For Complex Parts

Explore Wet Bag CIP's flexibility for prototyping and large parts, including key benefits like uniform compaction and suitability for diverse shapes.

What Is The Purpose Of Applying Cold Isostatic Pressing (Cip) To Titanium Green Bodies? Achieve Uniform Densification

Learn how Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP) eliminates density gradients and improves mechanical properties in titanium injection molded parts.

What Is The Purpose Of Using 0.1Mm Thick Graphite Foil? Optimize Srtio3 Sintering And Protect Your Mold

Learn how 0.1mm graphite foil prevents adhesion, facilitates demolding, and extends mold life during vacuum hot press sintering of SrTiO3.

What Is The Function Of Standard Laboratory Environment Control During Battery Capacity Calibration Experiments? | Data Integrity

Learn how environmental control eliminates kinetic noise and establishes a unified baseline for accurate battery capacity calibration and research.

What Are The Advantages Of Isostatic Pressing For Solid-State Batteries? Overcome Interface Contact Issues Efficiently

Learn how isostatic pressing eliminates voids and reduces impedance in solid-state batteries through uniform pressure for superior performance.

Why Are Y-Tzp Zirconia Implants Typically Treated With A Hot Isostatic Press (Hip)? Maximize Implant Strength

Learn how Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) eliminates micropores in Y-TZP zirconia to achieve near 100% density and superior fatigue strength.

What Are The Functional Requirements For The Specialized Adapters Used To Connect Pressure Vessels To External Load Frames?

Learn the essential requirements for pressure vessel adapters, focusing on high-strength alloy construction, rigidity, and precise beam alignment.

Why Is An Internal Force Gauge Necessary In A Triaxial Compression Deformation Apparatus? Achieve Peak Data Integrity

Learn how internal force gauges eliminate piston friction errors in triaxial testing to provide direct, high-precision differential load data.

What Is The Purpose Of Preparing Standard Molded Specimen Strips For Firing Shrinkage Tests? Optimize Your Clay Testing

Learn why standard molded specimen strips are vital for measuring clay linear shrinkage, ensuring precise mold design and product quality.

Why Are High-Performance Proportional Hydraulic Valves Integrated? Unlock Precision In Your Hydraulic Press System

Learn how proportional valves transform hydraulic press performance through electronic signal control and real-time load compensation.

Why Is A High-Rigidity Hydraulic Loading System Required For Ded? Master Interlayer Cold Rolling Excellence

Learn why high-rigidity hydraulic systems are essential for DED interlayer cold rolling to achieve grain refinement and eliminate residual stress.

What Role Does Hot Isostatic Pressing (Hip) Equipment Play In Additive Manufacturing? Achieve 99.9% Density & Durability

Learn how HIP equipment eliminates internal voids and heals porosity in 3D-printed metal parts to maximize fatigue life and material ductility.

What Are The Technical Advantages Of Hip With Urq Technology? Achieve 1000 K/Min Cooling & Integrated Heat Treatment

Learn how URQ technology in HIP systems delivers 10x faster cooling, eliminates residual stress, and enables integrated heat treatment.

Why Is A Uniaxial Compression Dehydrator Vital For Hap/Col Nanocomposites? Master The Essential Pre-Forming Stage

Learn why uniaxial compression dehydration is critical for HAp/Col synthesis, bridging the gap between raw precipitates and solid pre-forms.

What Role Does The Capillary Tube Play In High-Pressure Release? Master Controlled Decompression & Protect Your Anvil

Learn how capillary tubes regulate piston velocity and prevent mechanical shock in high-pressure systems to extend laboratory equipment lifespan.

Why Is Precise High-Pressure And Holding Time Control In Cip Systems Critical For Ultra-Fine Grain Materials?

Learn why precise pressure and holding time are essential in CIP for compacting work-hardened ultra-fine powders and ensuring material density.

What Is The Function Of Specialized Battery Molds And Sealing Consumables? Optimize Your In-Situ Xrd Testing Today

Learn how specialized battery molds and sealing consumables protect sensitive chemistries while enabling precise In-situ XRD data collection.

What Is The Purpose Of Inserting A Thermocouple Into The Center Of A Product During Hpp? Ensure Safety And Precision

Learn why core temperature monitoring via thermocouples is essential for tracking adiabatic heating and ensuring safety in high-pressure processing.

Why Is The Temperature Control Of The Pressure Transmission Medium Critical In The Wip Process? Optimize Your Results

Learn why precise temperature control in Warm Isostatic Pressing (WIP) is essential for binder rheology, defect repair, and part integrity.

What Are The Technical Advantages Of Using A Hot Press Sintering (Hps) Furnace? Achieve Peak Sic/Yag Ceramic Density

Learn how HPS furnaces use mechanical pressure to lower sintering temperatures by 200°C, inhibiting grain growth for stronger SiC/YAG ceramics.

What Is The Function Of Specialized Coin Cell Molds? Optimize Solid-State Electrolyte Stability Testing

Learn how specialized coin cell molds and flat cell fixtures ensure uniform pressure and intimate contact for accurate solid-state battery testing.

What Is The Function Of Teflon-Coated Fiberglass Cloth In Composite Curing? Ensure Perfect Non-Stick Release

Learn how Teflon-coated fiberglass cloth prevents resin bonding, protects equipment, and maintains surface quality during composite hot pressing.

What Are The Advantages Of Using A Cold Isostatic Press (Cip) For Zta Ceramics? Achieve High-Performance Uniformity

Discover why CIP outperforms dry pressing for ZTA ceramic green bodies by eliminating density gradients and ensuring isotropic shrinkage.

Why Is The Granulation Of Active Powders Necessary Before Pressing Battery Green Bodies? Ensure Structural Integrity

Learn why granulation is essential for all-solid-state battery green bodies to improve flowability, density, and prevent demolding cracks.

Why Is Vacuum Encapsulation Required Before Sintering Al-Ni3Al? Ensure Peak Density And Purity

Learn how vacuum encapsulation prevents oxidation and contamination during Al-Ni3Al sintering to achieve high density and phase stability.

Why Is Cold Isostatic Pressing (Cip) Utilized In The Preparation Of Lnkn Ceramic Green Bodies? Achieve Maximum Density

Learn how Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP) eliminates density gradients and defects in LNKN ceramic green bodies for superior sintering results.

Why Is Cold Isostatic Pressing (Cip) Used For Bsct Ceramic Green Bodies? Achieve Uniform Density And Zero Defects

Learn why CIP outperforms uniaxial pressing for (Ba,Sr,Ca)TiO3 ceramics by ensuring uniform density, reducing cracks, and optimizing microstructure.

What Are The Advantages Of Using A Cold Isostatic Press? Optimize Solid-State Zinc-Air Battery Interfaces

Learn how Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP) eliminates density gradients and prevents delamination in solid-state batteries compared to uniaxial methods.

What Is The Purpose Of Using A High-Pressure Filter Press? Optimize Drilling Fluid And Prevent Pipe Sticking

Learn how high-pressure filter presses simulate wellbore conditions to evaluate fluid loss and mud cake quality for drilling fluid lubricants.

What Is The Necessity Of Using A High-Precision Circular Disc Cutter? Ensure Sodium-Ion Battery Safety And Data Accuracy

Discover why high-precision disc cutters are vital for sodium-ion batteries to prevent dendrite growth and ensure consistent electrochemical data.

Why Is A Cold Isostatic Press (Cip) Necessary For Pollucite Ceramics? Achieve 94.5% Density And Structural Integrity

Learn why CIP is essential for Pollucite ceramic green bodies to eliminate density gradients, remove pores, and ensure defect-free sintering.

What Is The Role Of A High-Temperature Tube Furnace In Cotton Fiber Carbonization? Key For Composite Prep

Learn how high-temperature tube furnaces enable the carbonization of cotton fibers at 500°C under nitrogen for advanced composite materials.

Why Is Cold Isostatic Pressing (Cip) Used After Dry Pressing? Enhance 3Y-Tzp Density And Structural Integrity

Learn why CIP is essential after dry pressing 3Y-TZP ceramics to eliminate density gradients, prevent warping, and ensure uniform sintering results.

Why Is Cold Isostatic Pressing (Cip) Applied To Llzo Green Bodies? Enhance Density For Solid-State Battery Research

Learn how Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP) eliminates density gradients and micro-pores in LLZO green bodies to maximize ionic conductivity.

What Is The Primary Function Of An Industrial Hydraulic Press For Y-Tzp Powder? Achieve Precision Consolidation

Learn how industrial hydraulic presses facilitate uniaxial consolidation to create high-quality Y-TZP zirconia green bodies for further processing.

How Does Graphite Lubricant Assist The Forming Process In Rubber Isostatic Pressing (Rip)? Optimize Pressure Uniformity

Learn how graphite lubricant reduces friction and eliminates density gradients in Rubber Isostatic Pressing (RIP) for superior part quality.

What Is The Purpose Of Combining Uniaxial Pressing With Cip? Achieve Uniform Alumina Density

Learn why combining uniaxial pressing with Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP) is essential for eliminating density gradients in alumina green bodies.

Why Are Both A Laboratory Hydraulic Press And A Cold Isostatic Press (Cip) Required To Prepare Sdc Green Bodies?

Learn why SDC green body preparation requires both hydraulic and cold isostatic pressing to achieve high density and uniform microstructures.

What Advantages Does A Calender (Roll Press) Offer Over A Flat Plate Press In Sulfide Battery Production?

Discover how calender roll presses enhance sulfide solid-state battery manufacturing through continuous processing and superior density control.

Why Must K3Sbs4 Synthesis Be Conducted In A Dry Argon Glove Box? Ensure Safety And Material Purity

Learn why inert argon environments are critical for K3SbS4 synthesis to prevent hydrolysis, oxidation, and hazardous gas release.

What Is The Function Of A Conical Hopper Design In A Screw Extruder? Optimize Your Biomass Production Flow

Learn how the conical hopper design prevents bridging and ensures uniform material flow for high-quality continuous biomass extrusion.

Why Is The Press Crown Selected For Vibration Sensors? Enhance Machine Safety Through Optimal Modal Analysis Placement

Learn why the press crown is the ideal location for vibration sensors to maximize signal sensitivity and detect structural issues in hydraulic presses.

What Is The Necessity Of Welding Multiple Thermocouples Onto A Specimen? Ensure Precision In Steel Thermal Simulation

Discover why multiple thermocouples are essential for medium carbon steel simulation, ensuring temperature uniformity and accurate flow stress data.

What Is The Purpose Of Using An Argon-Filled Glove Box During Peo Synthesis? Protect Your Solid Polymer Electrolytes

Learn why an argon-filled glove box is essential for PEO-based electrolyte synthesis to prevent moisture-induced degradation and ensure performance.

What Function Do Vacuum-Sealed Vinyl Bags Serve In Cip? Ensure Material Purity And Uniform Density

Learn how vacuum-sealed vinyl bags protect material integrity and ensure uniform densification during Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP).

What Is The Purpose Of The Manual Grinding Process In Li-Dss Preparation? Unlock Perfect Electrolyte Uniformity

Learn how manual grinding establishes molecular-level contact in Li-DSS electrolytes to ensure successful eutectic transitions.

How Does The Choice Of High-Purity Alkali Metal Sources Affect Graphene Chemical Doping? Optimize Your Material Performance

Learn how alkali metals like Lithium and Cesium influence graphene's conductivity, structural stability, and Fermi level during chemical doping.

What Thermal Safety Advantages Do Li-Cu Composite Anodes Have? Enhancing Battery Stability With Advanced Pressing

Discover how Li-Cu composite anodes improve battery safety through heat dissipation and molten lithium containment using 3D copper mesh technology.

What Advantages Do Laboratory Vacuum Planetary Mixers Offer When Mixing Nanotubes With Epoxy Resin? Achieve Void-Free Dispersion

Learn how vacuum planetary mixers use high shear stress and real-time degassing to create defect-free, uniform nanotube-epoxy composites.

What Key Function Does A High-Temperature Sintering Furnace Perform In The Preparation Of Zinc-Lanthanum Alloys? (Spdm)

Learn how high-temperature sintering furnaces enable solid-phase diffusion to create protective lanthanum layers for stabilized zinc battery anodes.

What Is The Importance Of Considering Nonlinear Thermal Conductivity In Hip? Achieve Precise Temperature Modeling

Learn why nonlinear thermal conductivity is essential in HIP modeling to prevent internal cracking and ensure uniform material densification.

Why Is A Boron Nitride (Bn) Coating Applied To Graphite Dies? Protect Your Max Phase Ceramics During Hot Pressing

Learn how BN coating acts as a chemical barrier and lubricant to prevent reactions and facilitate release in MAX phase hot pressing.

How Does The Size Of Tungsten Carbide (Wc) Anvils Affect The Quality Of Ultrasonic Signals? Optimize Your Signal Clarity

Learn how smaller WC anvils enhance ultrasonic signal quality by reducing path length and preserving high frequencies for precise lab measurements.